Syria defence chief Murhaf Abu Qasra on the plan to oust Assad

A slew of setbacks

Asked about preparations for Operation Deterrence of Aggression, he explained that a military push by al-Assad's forces from April 2019 to March 2020 reclaimed swathes of territory. This focused minds, he said. "After the campaign ended in March 2020, we began taking concrete steps to rebuild our military forces."

He said the opposition forces, of which he was a part, emerged from 2019-20 with "substantial territorial losses and a severe decline in morale", both among civilians and fighters. "We decided to change our military doctrine, driven by the crucial needs of the battle."

Amidst a series of regional eruptions collectively called 'the Arab Spring,' Syria's opposition faced the regime alone from 2011-12. "By God's grace, we managed to weaken it significantly. The regime effectively fell during this period, and turned to Iran for help. From 2013-14, we were confronting both the regime and Iran. 

"Once again, we managed to break them, culminating in early 2015, when the regime and Iran turned to Russia for support. Russia's intervention in September 2015 ushered in a new military phase with significant challenges."

One of the primary difficulties, he said, was "the absence of centralised decision-making, which stemmed from a lack of unity among the military factions". For various reasons, these factions "failed to coalesce into a unified army". Abu Qusra laments this absence of centralised command and coordination. "It cost us dearly." 

Fast forward to 2019 and the Assad regime's onslaught, he said: "We managed to hold our ground. On the coastal front, for instance, the conflict stretched on for nearly 11 months. Similarly, in the northern Hama countryside—areas like Kafr Nabuda and Tal Othman—we resisted for more than three months. But despite our efforts, we eventually experienced setbacks." 

They lost control over the entire M5 (Aleppo-Damascus) Highway, including the western countryside of Aleppo, Saraqib, Maarat al-Numan, and Khan Shaykhon, he said. "This entire line fell. With God's help, we managed to hold the front in the Latakia countryside and retained control of the M4 (Aleppo-Latakia) Highway."

Boosting morale and devising strategy

In March 2020, as the world locked down at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, Russia's President Vladimir Putin and Türkiye's President Recep Tayyip Erdogan—who had conflicting interests in the Syrian conflict—agreed to a temporary halt in hostilities.

"The area was designated as a de-escalation zone," said Abu Qusra. "At that point, we began devising a military plan to stabilise the situation. Although intricate, it revolved around a few fundamental principles, the first being to boost the morale of our forces, including commanders, officers, and soldiers, to reinvigorate their determination."

"Battle requires both willpower and resolve. We designed specific morale-raising programmes and, over the years,  succeeded in implementing them. They targeted individuals, key commanders, and even mid-level leadership. Within a year and a half, we saw a significant improvement in morale. But morale alone is insufficient." 

Abu Qusra said they also needed "tangible military advancements, including comprehensive training and refined strategic tactics." When Russia entered the conflict, he said their enemies "changed their strategies and bolstered their capabilities, while we remained entrenched in the same formations and outdated tactics… it led to stagnation, and this ultimately led to our setbacks in 2019-20".

He said: "A turning point for us was focusing on a singular objective. I brought different rebel groups together in June 2020 to prepare the plan we intended to execute. We called this plan the 'military doctrine'. We had forces with regional affiliations and others linked to displaced individuals from various provinces. Consequently, we decided to abolish all existing military structures." 

Previously, they had used terms like army, brigade, and bloc, but these designations were now being binned. "We transitioned from a conventional model to building military structures capable of independently executing both defensive and offensive combat missions without relying on external reinforcements."

When Syria's opposition began reorganising their military forces, Abu Qusra said, "We scrapped old designations and reassigned all personnel". The new goal, he explained, was to adapt to a military doctrine tailored to the needs of the battle. 

"We were a military force facing well-trained regular armies like those of Iran and Russia. It was an enormous challenge. Praise be to God, we transformed a chaotic structure into an organised system, establishing military brigades with clear objectives and strategies."

While courage is indispensable to any army, said Abu Qusra, it is not enough to win in modern warfare using advanced technology. "Courage must be complemented by solid military prowess. The enemy had sophisticated capabilities, including day and night reconnaissance, night combat, and precise artillery coordination integrated with surveillance. The nature of the battlefield transformed dramatically."

Even the bravest soldiers would struggle against that, he said. "We established the Military College under the auspices of the Salvation Government and recruited senior officers who had defected from the regime. In 2021, we began assigning personnel to specific roles."

Comprehensive training

They established the General Directorate of Training alongside the Military College to prepare those who wanted to become officers, he said. "Manuals and textbooks were produced, covering everything from topography, tactics, reconnaissance, engineering, and more. All our military commanders participated in this programme, which operated on a rotation system. Some succeeded, others did not. Those who completed it got a Bachelor's Degree in military science."

They adopted a "streamlined" approach to training, he said, with commanders undertaking an intensive six-month programme. Other programmes covered specialisms such as artillery, special forces, night combat, and tactics. It was all part of the "revitalisation" of military education and efforts to boost morale, while integrating fighters into a new structure. 

"We focused on several key areas," said Abu Qusra. "First, all military brigades were equipped with day and night reconnaissance capabilities. They also used locally-developed live-streaming technology, which let us monitor the battlefield around-the-clock. This gave us a significant strategic advantage."

Unit commanders now have Operations Rooms where they can track their forces' progress and locations while detecting enemy reinforcements. "I watched a recording of the Al-Khattab battle in the Hama countryside—it felt like watching a movie. This greatly strengthened our reconnaissance capabilities."

Another critical improvement was their fighters' ability to conduct night combat operations, he said. "Previously, we could only operate effectively during the day. At night, the (regime's) army would mobilise its forces and exploit its advantage in night-fighting to seize territory." 

To address this, they developed night trackers, night snipers, and reconnaissance, he explained. "During Deterrence of Aggression, praise be to God, we had the capability to fight effectively during the day and advance forces at night. This relentless pressure accelerated the regime's collapse by denying it the chance to regroup and reorganise." 

Homemade drones

Given the situation, Syria's anti-Assad forces had to develop their own local military industries. One of the most intriguing has been its Al-Shaheen unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs, or drones). Abu Qusra shed light on this, explaining that it came from a "consolidation of all military industries… into a single administration and leadership structure" in 2020. 

Asked about the name, Abu Qusra said: "For me, Shaheen does not refer to a single aircraft, but rather to battalions. We have more than one type. For instance, we developed planes for both close-range and long-range reconnaissance, both with live broadcasting capabilities.

"Additionally, we developed two other types: the Al-Qassif aircraft, a bomber, and the Al-Intihari aircraft, a suicide bomber. They were designed in various models, each capable of carrying different payloads—10kg, 15kg, or 20kg. We achieved remarkable results. One can fly 150km, deliver its payload, then fly another 150km to return to base.

"We also had planes designed for short distances, just 10–15km, also capable of carrying payloads. We used long-range, medium-range, short-range, and reconnaissance planes in battle, integrating them into our operations. Every single one was locally manufactured."

Vehicles and artillery

He said: "Designing military equipment is challenging. We aligned every effort with the specific demands of the battlefield. One notable accomplishment was the production of an armoured vehicle, which was also manufactured locally. They were equipped with advanced armour and insulation, and they performed exceptionally well, with widespread recognition during combat. 

"To meet demand, we established two dedicated production lines, but manufacturing them was no simple task. Armies rely on tracked vehicles rather than armoured vehicles, which are more commonly used by border guards or cavalry units, but due to our shortage of tracked vehicles, armoured vehicles became essential, filling a critical gap in our operations and proving invaluable on the battlefield."

Abu Qusra said they also developed artillery systems, including mortar. This comes with various shells, ranges, and calibres. They manufactured both the weapon and its corresponding shells, giving "excellent results and significant range improvements". 

The other system involved rocket artillery. "For this, we purchased vehicles and modified them to launch missiles or rockets that we manufactured. This required creating the hardware as well as preparing and training the crew to operate it effectively."

After passing a committee interview, candidates for artillery training learnt about equipment and ammunition, the science of firing, operational command and control techniques, and artillery tactics, which covered advanced strategies. Artillery training had different phases, as did night-fighting or sniper training. Throughout, candidates underwent assessments to determine their suitability.

Candidates advanced through the levels, Abu Qusra explained, before finally being handed their specialised equipment, such as sniper rifles. "In the old system, untrained soldiers were simply handed sniper rifles and expected to hit targets," he said. "It was a method doomed to fail". 

Addressing challenges

Among the principal hazards were the extensive minefields sown by the regime, including anti-personnel and anti-armour mines. "Praise be to God, we developed a locally manufactured four-tonne mine sweeper," he said. "It could be mounted to the front of a tank, allowing it to clear mines and open pathways for infantry and vehicles. This played a pivotal role in battle."

Operating in Idlib, an area comprising just 6% of Syria's territory, created "extremely demanding conditions," said Abu Qusra. "Training was particularly difficult. At times, we had as many as 3,000 personnel training in camps each month, both new recruits and seasoned forces, enduring constant bombardment. It was unrelenting. We often had to evacuate or abbreviate training sessions due to immediate threats."

He said: "Tragically, the training process came at a heavy cost, with casualties, including both dead and wounded. Our military intelligence would inform us in advance if, for example, bombing was expected the next day. In such cases, we would cancel or postpone training sessions. Despite these overwhelming difficulties, we had no alternative but to press on with unwavering determination."

**Visit Al Majalla tomorrow to read part 2 of the interview**