The plundering of Syria's cultural heritage - Part 2

Al-Asaad told Al Majalla: "I have a great deal of evidence; things I personally witnessed, as well as information shared with me by individuals who were present during the incident, including some who were imprisoned with my father during his detention." In his view, this evidence points to one conclusion, that "the regime had the greatest interest in his assassination, which coincided with the destruction of the archaeological city."

"For the fallen regime, the city represented a highly valuable card that it played masterfully on multiple levels," adds Al-Assad, elaborating on the unique importance of Palmyra on the global heritage map. "The open looting and destruction of antiquities by ISIS left the international community facing a binary choice: either accept the continued rule of the Assad regime as a protector of world heritage, or accept ISIS."

Speaking about the closure of the archaeological zone in Palmyra and the restriction of access to Russian forces, regime security services, and allied sectarian militias—under the pretext of demining—Al-Asaad claims the real objective was to "create an opportunity to search for treasures and antiquities".

He further asserts that "employees of the Ministry of Culture and Antiquities were banned from entering or filming the site without prior security approval, and even then, only under armed escort with a predetermined route and time frame." He notes, for example, that "the Valley of the Tombs, which is rich with tower graves, remained completely off-limits until the regime's fall."

Spirit and identity

The Syrian Association for the Protection of Archaeology has documented the damage to—or destruction of—more than 800 archaeological sites as a result of the war. Extremist groups blew up numerous archaeological monuments in Palmyra, including the statue of the Lion of Al-lāt and the Temple of Baalshamin.

In October 2015, ISIS destroyed the ancient Arch of Triumph, a structure that had stood for 2,000 years. It was targeted because of what the group considered to be "idolatrous" symbols and inscriptions carved into the stonework. The group had previously destroyed the statue of the Lion of Athena, which stood at the entrance to the city.

Reflecting on this dark period, during which Syria lost much of its cultural and human heritage, archaeologist Yousef Kanjo, a former director of antiquities and museums in Aleppo, spoke to Al Majalla. 

"Yes, this was a black chapter in Syria's history. Every archaeological site that fell under ISIS control was either looted or destroyed, especially in Raqqa Governorate. ISIS permitted illegal excavation groups to operate freely and even established military bases on archaeological sites. Everything was looted from the Raqqa Museum and the Palmyra Museum, including priceless treasures like Syria's unique mummies."

Mohammad Nazir Awad, director general of the Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums in Syria, notes that "ISIS systematically destroyed the tower tombs, the temples of Nabu and Al-lāt, the public baths, and the theatre."

According to Farouq Ismail, a Syrian archaeologist and scholar, because "the group could not easily smuggle out large stone statues to sell them, they simply smashed them." Heavy machinery was used to accelerate the excavation of artefacts in places such as Tell Ajaja, Mouzer, Sura, Hammam, and Sheikh Hamad, explains Ismail.

ISIS's antiquities trade

From 2013, when ISIS began to occupy vast areas of both Iraq and Syria, the group embarked on a deliberate and systematic campaign to destroy and deface archaeological heritage—particularly in Palmyra and Mosul in Iraq—due to the immense historical value these cities held at a global level.

In this context, Al Majalla spoke to Abu Arab, a pseudonym used by one resident of the Tell Tuneinir archaeological site in north-eastern Syria, who still fears retribution from ISIS. He explained that the group, led by the so-called 'Emir of Antiquities', Abu Al-Wafa Al-Tunisi, oversaw ISIS's excavation operations and had carried out digs at Tell Tuneinir, located on the eastern flank of the Jaghjagh River. There, they unearthed a two-piece Assyrian funerary relief carved from marble.

Measuring 125cm in height and one metre in width, and weighing roughly 300kg, the relief depicted King Hammurabi and his wife. It was estimated to be worth around $5mn and smuggled out of Syria with the help of individuals including Abu Hajar Al-Quraishi (an Iraqi national holding Norwegian citizenship), Abu Mohammed Al-Bahraini, and Abu Turab Al-Sahrawi—all ISIS members involved in the trafficking of antiquities. The artefact was first transported to Raqqa, then to the city of Urfa, where ISIS's chief antiquities broker, Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahrawi, sold it to foreign antiquities dealers.

News reports from 2014 revealed that ISIS members were conducting excavations at Tell Ajaja, one of the most important Assyrian archaeological sites in north-eastern Syria. There, they uncovered two sculpted heads of statues believed to represent King Hammurabi. One of the heads measured 90cm in height and weighed 80kg. The estimated market value of both was around $3mn.

Business of destruction

During ISIS's control of large swathes of Syria, the group vandalised and ransacked archaeological sites within the span of a single year—damage that would have taken more than 50 years to excavate properly under standard archaeological practice. Its bulldozers tore through vital chapters of Syria's cultural history. "Fortunately, ISIS did not take over the entire Syrian territory, or we would have lost every archaeological site," says Kanjo.

Today, Syria's archaeological treasures have become fair game for looters and warlords from across the region. Researcher Adnan al-Mohammed says: "Antiquities would be smuggled out of areas under ISIS control into Turkey, and from there re-enter Syria's coastal regions, ultimately making their way into Hezbollah-controlled areas. From there, Hezbollah's networks, in collaboration with the Iranians, would transport the artefacts outside the country."

At the top of the list was, and is, Palmyra, adds al-Mohammed. "Its antiquities were looted during the Assad regime, again during the revolution, then during ISIS's reign, and later under Iranian control. The looting never stopped."

ISIS entered the antiquities trafficking scene in 2014, to raise funds to buy weapons. According to Ismail: "The group's control over the Euphrates Valley and its surrounding areas in 2013 marked the beginning of systematic excavation efforts designed specifically to extract and sell antiquities to fund their military operations. They succeeded in smuggling and selling a large number of artefacts outside Syria."

The archaeologist Yasser al-Shouhan notes that ISIS went on to seize control of hundreds of archaeological sites. "They either forced local residents to excavate or offered them incentives, if they can be called that, in exchange for a share of the profits," he says.

He further explains that the group enlisted archaeologists and professional smugglers to appraise the artefacts, then imposed taxes on excavation activities ranging from 20 to 50% of the proceeds. It also issued digging permits in return for cash payments, which led many locals to join in the looting and theft of antiquities themselves.

Impact of armed conflict

Following the collapse of security and the former regime's withdrawal from most regions by late 2012, attacks on archaeological sites intensified significantly, though with varying degrees of severity. Many archaeological sites were transformed into active battlegrounds, leading to the damage of historic buildings, ancient fortresses, and culturally significant heritage sites.

The presence of military forces in archaeological locations "led to their devastation," says Ismail. "ISIS and other armed factions established military fortifications at a number of sites, such as the ancient Sumerian city of Mari, Tell Brak, and Tell Al-Hamidi, among others. They dug tunnels and trenches in places like Tell Al-Bi'a near Raqqa, as well as in many archaeological hills in Al Hasakah Governorate, which are now under the control of the Syrian Democratic Forces."

Tell Al-Hamidi, an archaeological site dating back to the Mitanni period (around 1500 BCE)—located halfway between the cities of Qamishli and Al Hasakah on the left bank of the Jaghjagh River—suffered significant destruction and extensive looting.

During a visit to the site, the author observed earthen embankments constructed in 2014-15—initially by ISIS and later by the Syrian Democratic Forces—at the summit of the site, which had been converted into a military zone between 2015 and 2025. Some of the excavation areas and ancient residential structures that had been uncovered were systematically destroyed. All the contents of the archaeological mission headquarters were looted and locals carried out daylight excavations without interference.

Reports issued by the Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums documented "more than 700 violations against archaeological sites in Deir ez-Zor alone between April 2011 and April 2013," notes al-Shouhan.

These violations included "encroachment on the surroundings of archaeological sites, clandestine excavations, looting of archaeological mission residences, use of heavy machinery, bulldozing of sites, and unauthorised digs." In Deir ez-Zor Governorate alone, the number of violations "surpassed 3,000 incidents by the end of 2015". As such, "it has since become extremely difficult to accurately account for the damage and violations beyond that date," explains al-Shouhan.

Completely disappeared

Al-Mohammed believes that "the armed conflict opened up all roads and checkpoints to armed groups as they pleased. Smuggling antiquities into Türkiye was easy, as was transporting them into Lebanon using vehicles loaded with looted artefacts."

He stresses that the war destroyed large parts of Syria's archaeological infrastructure, stating: "Syria has lost many heritage sites entirely. There are ancient cities and villages in north-western Syria that have disappeared completely. Others are well on their way. Around 50% of them have already vanished. Sites like Dura-Europos in the Syrian Badia have been completely looted, bombed, and now lie in a tragic state. Thousands of artefacts have been lost to looting, just as happened at Apamea, one of the richest areas in Syria in terms of mosaics, and at al-Nabi Houri. In Idlib, several archaeological hills were looted using bulldozers."

Al-Mohammed describes the regime's shelling of heritage sites: "They bombed ancient cities indiscriminately with barrel bombs, artillery, and warplanes. For example, they shelled the Hall of Fakhr al-Din II, destroying its walls. They used Palmyra as a military base. They turned the amphitheatre of Bosra al-Sham in Daraa—one of the oldest cities in the south, rich in Roman, Byzantine and Islamic landmarks—into a military post. They shelled the theatre, the Omari Mosque, and the tomb of Khalid ibn al-Walid. The Old City of Aleppo was 50% destroyed, and several important archaeological sites around the Citadel of Aleppo were reduced to rubble, including the collapse of its main wall."

Kanjo confirms the impact of the armed conflict, not just on archaeological sites, but on Syrian society as a whole. "Syria has lost a significant portion of its heritage, and it will not return, whether due to destruction or theft," he says. "No matter the technology, destroyed antiquities cannot be brought back to life. And stolen antiquities are unlikely to ever be recovered, as there is not enough legal evidence to prove ownership."

Legal framework for heritage

The country's archaeological authorities hold broad powers to intervene in safeguarding heritage sites, including the 1963 Antiquities Law and its amendments. Syria has also "signed all international treaties protecting archaeological sites from looting and illegal excavation," explains al-Mohammed. However, "unfortunately, neither the government nor parts of the population have abided by those laws."

"In practice, antiquities laws apply only to the poor," adds al-Mohammed. "Officials and the well-connected are exempt." According to the researcher, "what's needed is a strong figure in the Ministry of Culture and the Directorate of Antiquities and Museums who can enforce these laws effectively in the antiquities and museum sector."

"There is a clear lack of understanding among parts of Syrian society about what this heritage represents for the country's identity, history, and culture," explains Kanjo. Ismail stresses the need to "begin to recover antiquities smuggled out of Syria, whether they were stolen recently or taken long ago." This is a legal right enshrined in international agreements.

A protection plan

The political, economic, and social conditions the country has endured created the ideal environment for the rise of organised trafficking and smuggling. This, in turn, encouraged individuals to escalate the conflict in pursuit of control over smuggling routes and brokerage networks.

For Syria's antiquities sector to be safeguarded, and for its heritage to be preserved, a comprehensive framework of legal enforcement, international cooperation, and local engagement must be established to dismantle trafficking networks and restore protection to archaeological sites.

Such a framework must begin with "cooperation between the local community and the archaeological authorities," believes Kanjo. "At the second level, there must be coordination between the archaeological authorities and the security agencies. And at the third level, there must be collaboration between the archaeological authorities and local government, represented by the governorate and municipal councils."

Kanjo warns that without cooperation, "we will not be able to preserve what remains of our heritage. On the contrary, what the war has spared will be destroyed, whether during restoration work or through illegal excavations." He stresses: "There must be serious planning and strict new laws to protect Syria's antiquities sector."

"There is no doubt that the war has created an entirely new reality in most aspects of Syrian life," adds Ismail. "Rectifying that reality will require immense efforts and a long period of time to establish something better. It is a national duty that demands the collective effort of the Syrian people, in line with a methodical development policy and within the framework of a clear future strategy laid out by the government."

Tracing the untraceable

Internationally, efforts are underway "to create a red list for customs agencies that includes Syrian antiquities looted and smuggled out of the country," says Abdul Razzaq Muaz, a researcher in archaeology and history.

In 2018, the International Council of Museums published the Emergency Red List of Syrian Cultural Objects at Risk, specifically to help customs officials, law enforcement, and art professionals identify and prevent the illicit trafficking of Syrian cultural heritage.

The Syrian government has also signalled its intention to track down looted antiquities abroad via the organisation of a red list specific to Syrian artefacts. However, according to Awad: "We have no information about the antiquities smuggled out of Syria during the years of war (2011-24), which would allow us to prepare a red list including those items for submission to the relevant international bodies in order to recover them."

"Stolen items taken from museums are relatively easy to track and recover because they are already documented with images and associated records," says Anas al-Khabour, director of the National Museum of Raqqa. The biggest challenge lies with artefacts looted through illegal excavation.

"These pieces lack documentation proving their provenance, historical context or location of discovery. This makes it extremely difficult to make any legal claim to them, even if they appear on the black market and their origin is tentatively identified."