The Orientalists who entered Mecca in disguise

For centuries, Mecca was the pinnacle of exploration for Western travellers. Shrouded in mystery, it captured the imagination of a small but daring group of European Orientalists

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Lady Evelyn Cobbold, a Scottish aristocrat who converted to Islam and performed the Hajj in 1933, becoming the first British Muslim woman to do so.

The Orientalists who entered Mecca in disguise

Abdullah Al-Rashid

last update on 06 Jun 2025

Mecca, this sacred city that draws the hearts of Muslims from every corner of the globe, where souls yearn to visit the House of God and circumambulate the revered Kaaba, was not solely an object of Muslim devotion. It also captivated Western travellers and stirred the imaginations of Orientalists. As a holy sanctuary forbidden to non-Muslims, its inaccessibility loomed large in the European imagination, rendering it a city of secrets and a locus of marvels and wonder.

Since the Middle Ages, Western travellers regarded Mecca as the ultimate prize of exploration. The veils that enshrouded it were too powerful to resist, drawing a handful of adventurers—cloaked in the guise of Islam—on a quest to uncover its stories, rituals, and the secrets of its pilgrims – heedless of the dangers that could befall them at any moment. In their accounts, sanctity intertwined with curiosity, and the city’s spiritual aura merged with the drive for discovery as they recorded marvellous chapters of anticipation, impersonation, and transcendence.

Their motives were not solely intellectual. Political ambitions and colonial designs often underpinned their journeys. Some arrived in search of geographical knowledge and strategic insights from the very heart of the Islamic world. Thus, spiritual yearning, scholarly inquiry, and geopolitical intrigue converged, making Mecca—in their eyes—the pinnacle of travel literature: a destination steeped in awe and danger, accessible only through subterfuge and cloaked in a sanctity too imposing to approach openly.

Disguise as a gateway

Confronted by the religious prohibition barring non-Muslims from entering Mecca and Medina, Western travellers had little choice but to resort to disguise. It was the only way they could infiltrate the sacred sanctuaries and witness the holy rites first-hand.

These adventurers adopted Muslim attire, assumed Islamic names, and became fluent in Arabic or various Eastern dialects. Some went further, studying the Qur’an and mastering Islamic rituals to convincingly emulate Muslims in both appearance and behaviour. Many feigned conversion and claimed descent from far-flung Muslim communities to avoid arousing suspicion.

Fadel Senna/AFP — A pilgrim prays at dawn on Saudi Arabia's Mount Arafat, also known as Jabal al-Rahmaor Mount of Mercy, during the climax of the Hajj pilgrimage on 15 June 2024.

One such example is the British explorer Richard Burton, who, in 1853, posed as an Afghan doctor to gain access to Mecca. Fluent in Eastern languages such as Arabic and Farsi, he managed to persuade his fellow travellers of his assumed identity.

Others chose to present themselves as Muslims from remote regions of Asia or Africa, where their physical features might plausibly align with their fabricated origins. Some even underwent circumcision to solidify their pretence, acutely aware that exposure could lead to severe consequences, particularly if suspected of espionage or sacrilege.

These covert visitors employed bold tactics to pass unnoticed. Some borrowed identification documents or assumed the identities of actual Muslim pilgrims. The German baron Heinrich von Maltzan, for instance, entered Mecca in 1860 using the papers of an Algerian acquaintance, for which he paid a fee. He adopted the name Abdul Rahman and successfully passed through the city’s gates undetected.

Through such perilous subterfuge, some managed not only to enter Mecca but to perform the Hajj, whether under false pretences or in genuine faith. While some merely professed Islam temporarily to reach their objective, others experienced sincere conversions and undertook the pilgrimage with newfound conviction.

Strikingly, their daring disguises were often accompanied by a spirit of scientific endeavour. Many of these travellers were Orientalists, ethnographers, and linguists driven by intellectual curiosity to extraordinary lengths. They studied the details of Islamic worship—including the rituals of prayer, the circumambulation of the Kaaba, and the Sa’ee (walking between Safa and Marwa)—enabling them to blend seamlessly among the faithful.

"واس" — The Kaaba and the clock tower at the Grand Mosque in Mecca during evening prayers in the first week of Ramadan. Determined Western Orientalists came up with ways to get in.

In many instances, they embedded themselves within Meccan society, observing its markets, social gatherings, and daily rhythms in order to document their findings. In this way, disguise became not just a cover for unauthorised entry, but also a tool for scientific exploration. The legacy of these covert missions is a substantial body of literature that provides rare insights into Mecca’s customs, its people, and its pilgrims. Insights that remained obscured from the Western world for centuries.

Ludovico di Varthema

Among the most intriguing adventurers in the history of Orientalism is the Italian traveller Ludovico di Varthema—recognised as the first known non-Muslim European to enter Mecca and describe it from within. His journey began in the early 16th century, driven by a dual motive: a religious and intellectual curiosity to understand Islam from the inside, and a political mission, likely involving espionage on behalf of the Portuguese authorities, who at the time sought to expand their influence in the Islamic East.

Ludovico di Varthema is recognised as the first known non-Muslim European to enter Mecca and describe it from within

In 1503, Varthema arrived in the Levant disguised as a Muslim pilgrim under the name Yunus al-Masri, claiming to be a Mamluk (a slave-soldier of Turkic or Circassian origin) who had converted to Islam. His assumed identity was carefully chosen to avoid suspicion and facilitate his integration with the pilgrim caravans.

He succeeded in joining the Syrian Hajj caravan travelling from Damascus to Mecca, posing as one of its guards. The route through the Arabian desert was long and arduous. Varthema provided a vivid account of the desert paths, the harsh climate, the scattered water stations, the customs of travellers along the way, and the profound sense of awe that overcame the pilgrims as they neared the sacred sanctuary.

Although Varthema spent only a few days in Mecca, they were enough for him to record his impressions with a deep sense of wonder and astonishment. He wrote about the Kaaba, the crowds jostling to perform the tawaf (circumambulation) and kiss the Black Stone, the echoes of takbir and tahlil resounding through the Grand Mosque, and the vendors filling the roads leading to the sacred sites.

He portrayed Mecca as a city pulsating with faith, while noting the simplicity of its residents' lives. He also described the local market and the patterns of trade, which reflected the way of life in the Hejaz – now the western region of Saudi Arabia along the Red Sea coast – at that time.

Varthema was also the first European to provide relatively accurate observations of Medina and the tomb of the Prophet Muhammad, recording expressions he heard from the local inhabitants. He also recounted visits to other parts of the Arabian Peninsula, including Yanbu and Jeddah, also on the Red Sea coast.

Fully aware of the danger should his true identity be revealed, he maintained his disguise with great care, speaking fluent Arabic, imitating the rituals with precision, and even feigning reverence, knowing that exposure could cost him his life.

Upon his return, Varthema published his findings in a widely read book, Itinerario de Ludovico de Varthema Bolognese, which was subsequently translated into several European languages. It became one of the first works to offer European audiences an authentic and direct glimpse of Mecca and the pilgrimage, long concealed from the Western eye. The book had a profound impact, opening a window into a world hitherto veiled in mystery.

Varthema's journey marked a turning point in Europe's perception of the Islamic world and ignited the imagination of Orientalists eager to undertake similar adventures. In his wake came other disguised travellers, who followed his path to Mecca under assumed Muslim identities. They were driven by the same intellectual curiosity and, in some cases, by clear political motives.

The guise of a prince

At the dawn of the 19th century, the Spaniard Domingo Badía y Leblich embarked on a remarkable journey into the heart of the Islamic world. Disguised as Ali Bey al-Abbasi, he assumed the identity of an Arab prince claiming descent from one of Islam's most illustrious dynasties.

AFP — Worshippers pray around the Kaaba, Islam's holiest shrine, at the Grand Mosque in the holy city of Mecca ahead of the annual Hajj pilgrimage.

His choice was far from incidental; adopting the Abbasid title lent his persona historical gravitas, cloaking his European origins beneath a veneer of noble Islamic heritage. It was a rich irony that the legacy of the Abbasids, once the zenith of Islamic civilisation, should serve as a passport for a European to access Islam's most sacred city.

Badía professed Islam, trained in religious rites, and acquired enough fluency in Arabic to blend naturally with the Hajj caravans. In 1807, he successfully performed the pilgrimage, moving among the sacred sites and mingling with the crowds without arousing suspicion. He documented the journey in two substantial volumes that encompassed his geographical, social, and religious observations. His account included a detailed portrayal of Mecca, its lively markets, terrain, and inhabitants, as well as the lasting impact of wars and epidemics on the city's urban landscape.

Diverging paths to Mecca

In the wake of Varthema and al-Abbasi, other Orientalists followed suit, venturing into Mecca under the cloak of Islam. Motivations varied: some were driven by scientific inquiry or spiritual yearning, while others served the geopolitical agendas of colonial powers. Yet all shared a compelling curiosity to uncover the Muslim world's spiritual epicentre and qibla.

Among the most notable of these figures was the Dutch Orientalist Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, who entered Mecca in 1885 under the alias Abdul Ghaffar. He lived in concealment for six months in the Suq al-Layl quarter, studying under local scholars and documenting the fine details of daily life in the sanctuary and broader Meccan society. He secretly smuggled in a camera and captured photographs of markets, pilgrims, and homes.

Even more remarkably, he produced the earliest known audio recording of a Qur'anic recitation. This unique recording, made in the Grand Mosque in 1885 using primitive wax cylinder technology developed by Thomas Edison, is now preserved in the archives of Leiden University. It stands as a rare cultural and religious artefact, offering an auditory glimpse into the soundscape of Islamic devotion in that era.

Dutch Orientalist Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, who entered Mecca in 1885 under the alias Abdul Ghaffar, produced the earliest known audio recording of a Qur'anic recitation

Snouck compiled his observations into his renowned book Mekka in the Latter Part of the 19th Century, which became an essential reference on the city during the final years of the Ottoman era. Despite later controversy surrounding his involvement in supporting Dutch colonial efforts in Indonesia, his work remains a notable example of relatively impartial Western documentation of Islamic life in the Hejaz.

Another prominent figure to enter Mecca in disguise was the Swiss Orientalist Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, who made the pilgrimage in 1814 under the pseudonym Sheikh Ibrahim. Among the first Westerners to witness the Kaaba and participate in the Hajj rituals, his account was distinguished by its accuracy and fairness, written in a tone free from mockery or condescension.

Burckhardt was deeply moved by the spirit of fraternity among the pilgrims and the communal atmosphere that characterised the rites. His memoirs had a lasting impact on subsequent Western scholarship on Islam and became a key reference for understanding religious and social life in the Hejaz during the early 19th century.

In contrast to those who journeyed to Mecca without embracing Islam, others approached the pilgrimage through sincere conversion. Among them was William Richard Williamson, a British Orientalist who embraced Islam and made several pilgrimages between 1895 and 1936. He wrote of his experiences with evident admiration for the Muslim community, reflecting a profound spiritual metamorphosis.

AFP — Mecca was not solely an object of Muslim devotion. It also captivated Western travellers and stirred the imaginations of Orientalists.

A standout example in this context is the story of Lady Evelyn Cobbold, a Scottish aristocrat who converted to Islam and performed the Hajj in 1933, becoming the first British Muslim woman to do so. In her book Pilgrimage to Mecca, she recounted her experience with emotional nuance, describing her reverence before the Kaaba and her meditations on the plain of Arafat. Her narrative brought a distinct female voice to Western travel literature on Mecca, interweaving spiritual insight with human experience, and revealing the profound impact of the Hajj on Western converts to Islam.

Perhaps the most transformative journey was that of Leopold Weiss, an Austrian Jewish journalist who converted to Islam and became known as Muhammad Asad. Living in the Hejaz from 1926 to 1932, he became a trusted advisor to King Abdulaziz (the first king and founder of modern Saudi Arabia) and played a significant role in the region's political and intellectual life. In his acclaimed memoir The Road to Mecca, Asad not only recounted his travels but also mounted a philosophical defence of Islam, challenging Western misconceptions and offering a uniquely Western literary voice shaped by deep faith and cultural reflection.

Masks of knowledge

These clandestine adventures remain a fine thread connecting East and West. These men entered Mecca disguised as Muslims, but many emerged with their former perceptions profoundly shaken. Some were no longer the same—changed in outlook, deepened in admiration, or even converted to Islam out of sincere conviction. Others, however, remained confined within a rigid Orientalist lens, untouched by the depth and intensity of the experience.

SPA — Pilgrims arriving to perform the symbolic stoning of the devil ritual, as part of the Hajj pilgrimage in Mina near Saudi Arabia's holy city of Mecca on 28 June 2023.

These remarkable expeditions to Mecca reveal a central paradox at the heart of Orientalism. The travels of Western explorers were rarely impartial exercises in documentation or scholarly neutrality. More often, they were steeped in the complexities of European consciousness, carrying within them a blend of aspiration and anxiety, genuine curiosity and imperial ambition. Some approached their task with humility and awe, seeking knowledge and truth. Others viewed the Muslim world through a lens of superiority, aiming to decipher the 'other' from a vantage of control and cultural hegemony.

Their writings, therefore, form a layered and complex tapestry, combining precision in observation with moments of imaginative embellishment, disciplined documentation with subjective interpretation, and a respect for the sanctity of the place with an external gaze that at times stripped it of its spiritual depth. Within this mixture lies both the value and the danger of their legacy. Reading these travelogues is not simply a journey into historical scenes of Mecca; it is a window into how the West perceived the holy city and how it reimagined it within its own cultural imagination.

These narratives also serve as a mirror, reflecting the extent to which the West sought to understand – or to avoid understanding – Islam and its adherents. To contemplate these covert adventures is thus to unveil more than a chapter of Meccan history. It is to reveal how the pursuit of knowledge itself can become a form of masquerade: an exploration of the 'other' undertaken from behind a mask.

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