Nations rarely see the theft of their national treasures from space, but for the Sudanese people, satellite imagery in recent months provides precisely that. Since the onset of civil war in Sudan on 15 April 2023, the looting of artefacts from the National Museum of Sudan has been visible from above, the images showing trucks transporting stolen items to the Republic of South Sudan.
The looters did not limit their heist. They also targeted the Museum of the Khalifa’s House in Omdurman, which contains rare items from the Mahdist State at the end of the 19th century, and the Nyala Museum in South Darfur, which holds similarly valuable cultural treasures.
Unique material heritage
The National Museum of Sudan is home to some of the rarest archaeological collections, including granite statues of great Kushite kings such as Taharqa, as well as gold, bronze, iron, wood, and leather items, plus murals, weapons, sculptures, and various decorative objects.
These represent different eras of Sudanese civilisation, from prehistoric times, through to the kingdoms of Kerma, Napata, and Kush, and to the Christian periods of the kingdoms of Makuria, Alodia, and Soba.
In particular, the successive kingdoms of Kerma, Napata, and Kush (which became one of the ancient world’s superpowers) have left behind an invaluable material heritage, with priceless artefacts serving as enduring testaments to the grandeur of the Sudanese people’s ancestors.
Yet tragically, throughout its long history, Sudan has suffered from the plundering of its material history. The evidence is not hidden but on show. Adorning the entrance to the British Museum in London today are six ram statues from the illustrious Kingdom of Kush. Elsewhere in the same building are meticulous carvings from the pyramids of Meroe.
Moreover, the practice continues. Exquisite gold jewellery was taken by non-archaeological expeditions in the Wadi Allaqi (Valley of Gold) in northern Sudan just a few years ago. These reported thefts represent just a fraction of the whole, and are but the latest in a dark history of theft from a nation.
Giuseppe Ferlini
In the first half of the 19th century, during the Turkish-Egyptian occupation of Sudan, the country suffered a hugely significant cultural heritage theft at the hands of Giuseppe Ferlini, an Italian adventurer and doctor who arrived in Sudan in 1830.
Born in Bologna in 1797, Ferlini had worked in Greece and Egypt before coming to Sudan as a military doctor with the occupying army. In Sudan, he visited key archaeological sites in Meroë, Musawwarat es-Sufra, Naqa, and Wad Ban Naqa.
Ferlini initially worked in Sennar, then Kordofan, and finally moved to Khartoum, ending his military service in 1834. He applied to Hurshid Pasha (the governor-general of Sudan) for permission to conduct archaeological excavations, saying he wanted to contribute to the study of Sudan’s ancient history.
After getting permission, Ferlini headed north and began his first excavation at the royal palace in Wad Ban Naqa. He then travelled east through Wadi Awatib to Naqa, where he conducted more digs before continuing to Musawwarat es-Sufra.
Initially, Ferlini's attempts to uncover treasure failed, unlike those of other European adventurers in the Nile Valley, who grew rich by selling looted artefacts to museums in countries like Italy, France, and Britain.
Eventually, Ferlini reached Meroë, specifically the royal city and royal tombs (pyramids) of the Kingdom of Kush, about 200km north of Khartoum and 40km north of Shendi, near Kabushiya, in what is now known as the al-Bajrawiya region.
Pyramids of Meroë
His trial excavations in the ruins of Meroë's royal city and some smaller pyramids produced no results. Determined to make one final attempt, he chose one of the larger pyramids—the most beautiful and best-preserved.
This was Great Pyramid N6 of Queen Amanishakheto, one of Sudan's most renowned rulers. Around 30m high and built from sandstone, this 64-step pyramid remains one of the most architecturally impressive.
Ferlini hired four local workers who, under his instruction, began dismantling the great structure from its summit while he and an Albanian companion, Antoni Stefani, sat in the shade of a nearby pyramid. Translated from its original Italian, Ferlini's account reveals his selfishness, racism, and barbaric methods.
He recalls workers revealing an opening described as "a circular arrangement of large stone blocks, which initially allowed us a dim view of the chamber and its contents".
Ferlini's diary
In his account, he wrote: "We ordered the workers to remove the massive blocks parallel to the outer steps. The chamber was approximately 6-7 sq. ft with a height of 5 ft. The first thing we saw appeared to be a large object covered in white linen, which disintegrated at the slightest touch.
"Beneath it, we found a wooden bed in the shape of a coffin, supported by four polished, rounded legs, with carved wooden pieces on either side. Under this bed lay a bronze vase containing objects wrapped in white linen. Scattered around the floor of the chamber, we found gleaming coloured glass pieces and gemstones arranged in chains.
"There were also amulets, statues, a metal box, small round cabinets, a saw, a mallet, a hammer with a wooden handle, and many other items. I collected all these objects and packed them in a leather bag, hiding the gold from the Arabs.
"When night fell, and the Africans returned to their huts, we brought the items back to our tent. That night, after all the servants and slaves had fallen into a deep sleep, my companion and I sat down and took out the valuable items from the leather bag to inspect them.
"I was filled with immense joy. I was thoroughly impressed by the golden jewellery, and upon realising the quantity, I knew it exceeded all similar finds in European museums. The carved and engraved stones not only matched the works of the Greeks but surpassed them."
Ferlini continued dismantling Queen Amanishakheto's pyramid, discovering palm fibre rope and a wooden hammer among the stone fragments, likely forgotten by the builders. After 15 days, he uncovered a small hiding place midway through the pyramid containing two bronze vases.
After a further 20 days, he had brought the pyramid down to the level of the votive chamber, making no further discoveries. In all, he destroyed around 40 pyramids in his hunt for treasure, sometimes even using explosives.
