Religious intolerance isn't intrinsic to Islam but came later

In northern and eastern Europe, the campaigns were even more violent. During the 12th and 13th centuries, the Knights of the Teutonic Order conducted military campaigns against pagan peoples in the Baltic region, such as the Prussians and Lithuanians. Pagan temples were destroyed, and entire populations were forcibly converted to Christianity.

In Scandinavia, kings like Olaf Tryggvason of Norway implemented coercive policies to convert their peoples to Christianity, including exiling or executing dissenters.

These efforts went beyond military conquest, extending to cultural repression. Pagan religious texts were burned, traditional rituals were banned, heavy taxes were imposed on non-converts, and populations were forcibly displaced.

The history of medieval Europe includes a range of similar events, painting a grim picture of religious intolerance and forced conversion.

Coexistence and equality in Islam

There was a different picture in the Islamic world in the same period, and it ran beyond the 8th and 9th centuries AD. Cities such as Baghdad, Damascus, Cordoba, Rey, Isfahan, Aleppo, Cairo, Nishapur, and places like Sicily stood as shining examples of religious, social, and cultural pluralism.

This era, particularly during the Umayyad and early Abbasid periods, was characterised by a unique form of coexistence that was unparalleled at the time. People of diverse faiths— Muslims, Christians, and Jews—lived side by side, enjoying rights that ensured their dignity, safety, and participation in society. It was an early embodiment of what we now call citizenship.

This spirit of tolerance is vividly illustrated by Muwaffaq al-Din Ibn Abi Usaybi'a in his seminal work, Uyoon al-Anba fi Tabaqat al-Atibba or The Sources of Information on the Classes of Physicians.

Writing about Christian and Jewish scholars who thrived within Islamic society, Ibn Abi Usaybi'a's descriptions are entirely free of hostility or suspicion. This is how he introduces the Syriac physician Abu al-Faraj al-Yabroudi: "Abu al-Faraj Georges ibn John ibn Sahl ibn Ibrahim, from the Nabk district of Damascus, was a Christian Jacobite. He was a virtuous physician, deeply knowledgeable in medicine's principles and practices. Counted among the senior experts of his time, he was constantly engaged in study, devoted to knowledge, and committed to virtue."

He describes the Jewish scholar Abu Imran Musa ibn Maimon, also known as Maimonides, as "one of the Jewish sages and their most virtuous", adding: "He served as their leader in Egypt and was unrivalled in his time in the practice and knowledge of medicine. Well-versed in various sciences and philosophy, he was held in high esteem by Sultan Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi, Saladin, who relied on him for medical care, as did his son, King al-Afdal Ali."

Maimonides was not the only Jewish physician Ibn Abi Usaybi'a praised. He spoke highly of Al-Bayan ibn al-Mudawar, known as al-Sadid, as: "A Jewish scholar, an expert reader… well-practised in medicine, whose achievements were numerous, and his contributions were praiseworthy".

And he described Al-Rais Hibatullah as: "A virtuous Israelite, celebrated for his skill in medicine, renowned for his expertise, and respected for his good works and effective treatments."

The decline of tolerance

Tunisian researcher Salwa Belhaj Saleh presented a rich and insightful thesis titled Arab Christianity and its Developments: From Its Origins to the Fourth Century AH. In her study, she explores the history of Arab Christians and their presence in the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, and the Levant during the Prophetic era, the Rashidun Caliphate, and the Umayyad and Abbasid eras.

Through detailed analysis supported by historical evidence and events, she examines the gradual decline of religious tolerance over successive periods and its impact on contemporary society. It highlights a clear divergence in values and behaviour from the inclusive nature of early Muslim societies.

The author provides a vivid example of the spirit of tolerance and ease with which people of other religions were treated within early Muslim communities, even when they openly expressed their religious affiliations.

A notable figure from these days was the famous Arab poet Al-Akhtal al-Taghlibi, a Christian who held a prominent position at the Umayyad court. His fame soared during the reign of Abdul Malik ibn Marwan. Al-Akhtal's privileged status is illustrated in one account:

According to Belhaj, al-Taghlibi: "Would enter the caliph's court without permission, wearing a gold chain with a cross around his neck, his beard reeking of wine."

One well-known anecdote recounts a conversation between Al-Akhtal and the caliph Abdul Malik.

Malik asked him:  "Why don't you convert to Islam, Al-Akhtal?"

Al-Akhtal replied: "If you permit me to drink wine and exempt me from fasting Ramadan, I will become a Muslim."

He then recited:

"I will not fast, Ramadan,

Not even for a day

Nor will I partake of sacrificial meat.

I will not rise like others to pray.

Before dawn greets the call to success.

But I will drink deeply through the night

And bow only as the morning light appears."

Abdul Malik, appreciating the wit and candour of his poet, responded with laughter.

Another account involves Hisham ibn Abdul Malik, who once heard Al-Akhtal recite the lines:

"If you lack wealth or provisions, you will not find

A store greater than righteous deeds."

Hisham quipped:

 "Congratulations, Abu Malik, that is Islam."

To which Al-Akhtal humorously replied:

"O Commander of the Faithful, I have always been a Muslim—in my own religion."

These examples demonstrate the frequent presence of Christian poets and physicians in the courts of the caliphate. Many of them were close companions or trusted physicians to the Abbasid caliphs.

Their stories have been documented by Dr. Jean Maurice Fiey in his book The Conditions of Christians Under the Abbasid Caliphate.

It includes a particularly noteworthy observation: The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs would begin conversations with people of other religions by inviting them to Islam, fulfilling their duty of counsel, without showing any resentment or anger if the invitation was declined.

Muslims and church building

Arab Christianity remained vibrant in the Levant and Iraq during the early Islamic era, with Christians retaining their churches and monasteries. The Islamic authorities of the time even contributed to organising church affairs and safeguarding its interests. One of the most prominent indicators of the vitality of Christianity under the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates was the growing inclination of many Christians toward monasticism. It even included the establishment of what was known as the "Arab Monastery."

The Umayyads permitted Christians to maintain most of their churches. They did not object to their restoration and even allowed the construction of new churches. Although some peace covenants during the Rashidun period stipulated a ban on building new churches, the Umayyads did not strictly enforce these agreements, except during the reign of Umar ibn Abdul Aziz.

According to Al-Tabari, Khalid al-Qasri, the governor of Iraq, personally ordered the construction of churches and places of worship. Later, the Abbasid caliph Abu Jaafar al-Mansur continued this policy when he established Baghdad.

Christians also played significant roles within the state. They served as ministers, scribes, court physicians, and were prominent among poets and writers of the era.

Theological disputes

Even theological disputes between Christian sects occasionally reached the caliphs for arbitration. For example, followers of the Maronite Church and the Syriac Orthodox Church brought their disagreement over the nature of Christ – stemming from the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD –before Caliph Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan.

The caliph ruled in favour of the Maronites and granted them churches in Homs, Hama, and Ma'arat al-Numan that had previously belonged to the Orthodox Church.

Several distinguished Christian scholars, physicians, and intellectuals flourished under the Abbasids, including Theophil ibn Touma al-Rahawi, who served as chief astronomer and astrologer for Caliph al-Mahdi.

There was also Qais al-Maruni, a historian who chronicled the history of humankind from the creation of Adam to the reign of Al-Mu'tadid. Then Girgis ibn Bakhtishu and his student Gabriel ibn Bakhtishu, both members of a renowned Christian family of physicians and scientists, flourished, while Hanin ibn Ishaq and his nephew Habash ibn al-Asam, became prominent translators and physicians.

And Abd al-Masih al-Kindi and John ibn Maswih, whose father had served as the director of the Damascus Hospital during the caliphate of Harun al-Rashid, were notable names during the period.

The most fitting description of the period comes from Ishoyahb III, the head of the Church of the East, who described the Muslims of his time in clear and straightforward terms:

"They are not enemies of Christianity but instead praise our religion, honour our priests and saints, and extend a helping hand to our churches and monasteries."